Main Divisions Between Mainstream and Critical Social Psychology

One of the main divisions between mainstream and critical social psychology is that of the methods adopted. Discuss with reference to the cognitive social and at least one other social psychological perspective. Social psychology has existed for about 100 years, before which psychology was a branch of philosophy. Social psychology studies individuals in their social contexts. It is a diverse discipline made up of many theoretical perspectives and variety of different methods are used in social psychological research. This assignment explores the main principles of different methods in social psychology. It will look at the underlying theories or perspectives that organise contemporary social and discursive psychological research and knowledge and critically evaluate different theoretical perspectives and methods. Cognitive social psychology studies the information processing individual in a social context to analyse individual cognitions in controlled social conditions. It is a quantative approach. It dominates psychological social psychology and emerged from the critique of behaviourism in the mid twentieth century. Researchers use an experimental approach involving controlled experimental conditions to produce quantitative data that can be measured and analysed to produce statistically valid conclusions. Discursive psychology focuses on the external world of discourse, its meaning and effects and studies the socially constructed, situated and contingent identity. It is a qualitative approach. It emerged in the 1970s with the linguistic turn, and was influenced by sociological social psychology. Researchers use discourse analysis to produce qualitative data by conversational and textual analysis. Phenomenological psychology focuses on the detailed description of social experience derived through the senses. It is a qualitative approach using the rich description of experience. It studies the internal world of the psyche in relational settings and its effect on action using first-person written account of experience, interview and literary text. It originated in the philosophy of Husserl in the late nineteenth/ early twentieth century. Social psychoanalytical psychology or psychosocial studies the internal world of the psyche in relational settings and its effects on actions. It is a qualitative approach. It looks at the conflicted psyche in dynamic relation with the external world. Using case study and free association narrative, interviews and observation qualitative data is evaluated through interpretation of what is unsaid as well as said. Its original development was in the clinic and it became an area of academic study in the late twentieth century. There are four overarching themes that can be used to interrogate a set of value issues that permeate social psychology. These are known as interrogative themes and they are outlined below. Power relations are central to the way that all knowledge is produced and interpreted. Power permeates everything we do and all our relationships . Power is neither good nor bad but it is what is done with it that determines this. Power is relational and the balance changes in different contexts. It is contextual and situated rather than absolute. Questions of power were first raised in relation to the deception of participants in the name of science. For example in Stanley Milgram’s (1965) experiment where participants were required to give increasing levels of electric shock to Milgram’s colleagues who posed as recipients of the electric shocks. The focus was on power relations between the scientist and participants, many of whom performed, as they believed, harmful and sadistic acts on the instructions of the scientist. Ethical guidelines in social psychology have been hugely influenced by this. The question of who has the power to interpret people’s experiences applies to all social psychological research. We need to be careful how we base interpretations on evidence, and we must interrogate how that evidence and those meanings came to be produced: within what assumptions and power relations. Power relations raise the issue of the relationship between the researcher and the participants. Another interrogative theme is situated knowledges. Knowledge always comes from a belief or view point Knowledge is always situated somewhere and sometime – it changes with time and is situated in terms of values, cultures, belief systems and history. It changes with social change. Knowledge production needs to be situated at the level of every piece of research. Methods are highly influential in the knowledges that are produced. Another interrogative theme is individual-society dualism. The most enduring theme in social psychology is whether individual or society is privileged in the explanation of social psychological phenomena and derives from the wider dualism of explanations that have characterised western thought since the Enlightenment. Individual-society dualism often manifested in a reduction of explanation to either biological (often genetic) or social causes. Sometimes ‘both/and’ explanations also suffer form this dualism because they behave as if there is no other level of explanation, only an ‘interaction’ between biological and social factors. Genuinely social psychological explanations get squeezed out. Agency-structure dualism is the twin problem of individual-social dualism. The binary terms ‘agency’ and ‘structure’ mirror the terms ‘individual’ and ‘society’ in the following way: if individuals are seen as relatively independent of social influence, they can be theorised as agents of their own destinies. On the other hand, if social structures are overwhelmingly influential in individual action, people’s choices and desires would be irrelevant. Traditional social theory placed such emphasis on the power of social structures in governing peoples actions that this led to self determinism. A challenge for social psychology is to be able to understand the dynamic tension between desires and actions that are relatively free and ones that are heavily constrained by circumstances, rather than fall into assumptions on either side of the agency-structure binary. This interrogative theme will help us remain aware of dangers which, like individual-society dualism, have strong political and ethical implications. All of these interrogative themes are useful in evaluating social psychological research and theories. There are differences and similarities between the four perspectives on social psychology that have been defined in this essay. They all have reflexivity because the researchers are prepared to put themselves in the picture of knowledge production. They are all explicit about the way their approach is appropriate to the object of analysis. A difference between the qualitative and quantitative approach is whether the object of analysis is hidden from view. This is highlighted as an advantage of the cognitive social psychology experimental method and is also central to the free association narrative interview method which draws from the psychoanalytic concept of unconscious dynamics. Phenomenological psychology, whose object of analysis is conscious experience, aims to elaborate qualities previously hidden form view through rich description. In contrast, discourse analysis is not interested in underlying significance but in words. Whereas discourse analysis is interested in emotion terms, social psychoanalysis looks for emotions themselves , while the object of phenomenological analysis is the emotions that people are aware of and can therefore describe. Social psychoanalysis and the experimental method look for causes of actions, but discourse analysis rejects this, and phenomenology focuses on experience rather than its causes or motives. Control of the research setting is the issue that most clearly differentiates quantitative and qualitative approaches. Experimental psychology ‘models’ social processes in order to control them. The other three approaches seek ecological validity by researching in social settings. Within the qualitative approaches there are differences in emphasis. Discourse analysts prefer to collect discourse as it can be found, although they also conduct interviews. The social psychoanalytical and phenomenological approaches rely in eliciting experience, often grounded in a narrative of actual events. Narrative is becoming an overarching theme in qualitative social psychology, partly because of the critique of unstructured interview techniques on the grounds that they dictate the terms in which participants can give their accounts. When interviews are relatively unstructured, participants have a tendency to give accounts in narrative form. It is useful to compare the different methodological approaches in relation to their analysis of The Guardian’s story published on 24 May 2004 about an Iraqi family, a mother an her children. The woman’s husband ( the children’s father) had died in detention during the American/British invasion and the newspaper quoted the woman’s response – ‘I will always hate you people’. The Cognitive Social Psychology Experimental approach outlined by Russell Spears states that experimental evidence is the lifeblood of psychology and experiments provide the control to assess causal relations and patterns among variables that may not be apparent to the naked eye. Whist acknowledging that we cannot reproduce in the lab the conditions that foster this kind of hatred, we can model some of the proposed processes and test implications of theories. The psychoanalytical perspective referred to by Wendy Hollway is a clinical rather than a research method. Free association interviewing is used to reach beyond the structured interviewing that dominates qualitative research and risks constraining interviewees with assumptions provided by questions. Derek Edwards discussion of discursive social psychology proposes looking at the report and how the words and, descriptions and accounts are assembled and put to work. He focuses on the reports themselves , how they provide for causal explanations, invoke psychological states and build implications for politics and policy. This approach examines how people deploy commonsense psychological ideas. Darren Langridge explores phenomenological social psychology as a descriptive enterprise. Data is collected though first person written accounts or interviews. The rush towards explanation is avoided. The aim is to identify structural qualities that are invariant across the experience, as well as those that are more idiosyncratic, focusing on the reasons but not the causes behind the phenomena in the hope of providing new insights that may enable us to effect change. In conclusion, there are similarities and differences between the methodologies used to explore the four perspectives in social psychology that have been discussed. Each approach has its strengths and weaknesses, and all can contribute to the continuing development of theories and approaches within social psychology. References Milgram, S ( 1974) Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View, London, Tavistock. Spears , R. , Hollway, W. and Edwards, D. (2005) ‘Three views on hate’, The Psychologist, vol 18, no 9, September, pp. 844-7. Social Psychology Matters Book 1, Chapter 2 by Wendy Hollway, Book 2, Chapter 1 (Introductions) – Open University Press. DVD 1 Social Psychology : Critical Perspectives on Self and Others.

The Annexation of Hawaii essays

The Annexation of Hawaii essays In the 19th century, Hawaii was not a part of the United States. Hawaii was a kingdom, ruled by King Kalakaua, and then surpassed by his sister, who became Queen Liliuokalani. Hawaii was an economically important location for the United States. Since the 1790s, American merchants would stop there on their way to China and India. Followed by the merchants came the Missionaries, who opened up schools and churches on the island. Sugar merchants also settled on Hawaii, and they eventually changed the Hawaiian economy. There were many sugar plantations in Hawaii, and the people who worked on these plantations were from other countries, such as Japan, Portugal, and China. Sugar was easily sold to the U.S. because there was no tariff, or shipping tax, on the sugar. The McKinley Tariff of 1890, however, placed a tax on Hawaiian sugar, and made it more expensive than Cuban sugar. Plantation owners wanted Hawaii to be annexed so their sugar would be tax-free. The population of the immigrants who worked on the sugar plantations, combined with the population of the plantation owners, was higher than the population of the Hawaiian people. White business leaders in Hawaii wanted the King, King Kalakaua, to change Hawaiis constitution to grant voting rights only to wealthy landowners, so that meant the natives couldnt vote. Queen Liliuokalani, who took over after her brother, King Kalakaua, died, wanted to remove the property qualifications for voting. She also proposed a new constitution that would restore political power to Hawaiis people, and not the white business leaders, or plantation owners, etc. The business leaders did not like this idea, and with the help of U.S. ambassador John L. Stevens, they organized a revolution against the queen. On January 16, 1893, the U.S.S. Boston appeared in Honolulu harbor, and the marines and volunteer troops imprisoned Queen Liliuokalani in her own palace. A provisional go ...

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Buis essays In my research for investing my new found $100,000 I came to the conclusion that there are many ways to maximize my returns. Whether it be to benefit my life after retirement, to earn a steady income or in hopes of making a seven figure salary. Of all choices available, the ones that I feel are the most reliable in achieving my goals are money market accounts (MMA), real estate, and IPOs. My reason for choosing a money market account is because experts, such as Greg McBride of BANKRATE.Com, say that there are many high yielding MMAs which provide consumers with a competitive, risk-free rate of return, without sacrificing access to their money. As for investing my money to earn an income, I would invest in a piece of real estate. The rental income generated from this investment would very lucrative because it would be tax free. However, if I would be looking to get rich fast, choosing the right IPO could yield the highest returns on my money. In recent years, hundreds of new stock issues more than tripled during the course of a business day. ...

Andromache’s Lament as an important element of the “Iliad”

Andromache’s Lament as an important element of the â€Å"Iliad† Andromache, one of the few female characters in the Iliad, is part of perhaps one of the tenderest sections of Iliad. Along with Helen, she is the only other mortal woman to have any substantial speaking lines in the entire epic. Unlike women in general in the Iliad, Andromaches role goes beyond being just another spoil of the war. Homer treats her as a counterpart to Hektor(she is, in a sense, his equal), giving her actions and words a greater significance. Andromaches lament (Book 22, lines 437-515) is particularly powerful because Homer effectively uses literary techniques here that bring out audience empathy. In the Iliad, Andromaches lament is a poignant, intense passage that serves as a characterization of Andromache, providing the reader with a further understanding of Hektor, Trojan life, and the impact of the Trojan War. Andromaches lament emphasizes the impact of the Trojan War on life at home and on the family. The Iliad focuses on Achilleus, Hektor, and other heroes in a war-like atmosphere; Andromache provides a contrast to this setting. Through their behavior, the male characters embody war, aggression, and honor, while Andromache becomes the representative for peace, love, and family. Andromaches lament acutely portrays the sense of despair, loss, and sadness that comes with the war. Here, Homers use of an emotive tone serves to highlight the sense of tragedy in a way that the audience could relate to. That is, Homer chooses to use diction evocative of the helplessness of a child, such as boy, baby, child, cheeks, tug, tiny, and soft bed. Andromache does not center her speech on only Hektors death or the immediate events of the war. Instead, she concentrates much of the passage on her dismal predictions about her son, Astyanaxs, life without a father. By focusing on Astyanax, Homer reminds the audience of the bigger picture of the Trojan War and the impact of war on all people, not just the impact on the protagonists of the story. Andromaches speech sheds light not only on the effects of war, but also on the relationship between Andromache and Hektor. The love between Andromache and Hektor is very powerful, and the depth of their bond gives the reader a sense of strength and integrity in Andromache and Hector. Because of the way Homer portrays Andromaches relationship with Hektor, Andromaches reaction to Hektors death generates audience empathy. Andromaches rampart scene with Hektor in book 6 provides the audience with prior knowledge about Hektor and Andromaches relationship. Consequently, Andromaches lament becomes all the more powerful and touching. We see these emotions via the imagery used to portray Andromache running out of the house like a raving woman with pulsing heart (Book 22, line460-461). When Andromache learns of Hektors death, she too dies: Homer uses the phrase the darkness of night misted over the eyes of Andromache (Book 22, line 466), which parallels the phrase used to describe death throug hout Iliad, the dark mist gathered around him (Book 20, line 417). In addition, the use of a morbid and rancid tone illustrates the great loss of Hektor. Andromache talks of writhing worms and dogs that will feed on Hektors naked corpse (Book 22, line 509-510); all of which convey a miserable picture of Hektors plight. As much as Andromache is a reflection of Hektor, she is also a representation of Troy itself. With the loss of Hektor, Andromaches world shatters. This shattering in turn foreshadows Troys downfall. [she]threw from her head the shining gear that ordered her headdress, the diadem and the cap(Book 22, line 468-470) The veil in ancient Greece is a symbol of husband and wife. By ripping off the veil, Andromache symbolically throws away her marriage with Hektor. With this comes the loss of her chastity, forewarning the raping and pillaging of both Troy and its women. In addition, Andromaches sons name is Astyanax, which means lord of the city. If Astyanax is a representation of Troy, then others will take his [Troys] lands (Book 22, line 489), and that he [Troy] will bow his head before every man (Book 22, line 491). Andromache represents all of the aforementioned because she, like Helen, is an observer in the epic. Even her location within the text, on the wall (Book 22, line 463) when she sees that Hektor is dead, shows this view from the outside. In the beginning of the passage, Andromache has not watched the duel like everyone else. Instead, she is weaving a web (Book 22, line 440). Thrice she gives speeches in the Iliad, all of which serve as insight into the mindset of the collective people during the time, as opposed to just what the main characters are thinking. Thus, Andromaches lament is one of the key passages of the Iliad that provides insight into life within the Trojan War.

Literature review and project specification Research Paper

Literature review and project specification - Research Paper Example More particularly, different studies prove the connection, practically and theoretically, between the employment influences of organizations’ ICT ventures and the effect of ICT dissemination on organizational factors linked to human resources. Berman and colleagues (2009) identify a growth in mandatory competencies during the 1980s in the sector of manufacturing, which is in part ascribed to the arrival of ICT. Bresnahan and Gambardella (2004) claim that employees and organizations have to implement the application of ICT, and provide empirical proof, at the organizational level, about the connection between the characteristics of the labor force and new recruitment practices. They show that organizations that implement innovation linked to ICT, development of new products or services, and restructuring of work, have a tendency to recruit more skilled employees. Ultimately, Landry and colleagues (2003) analyze the evolving nature of work in the period of technological innovati on (i.e. emergence of e-business) and underline major changes in organizational practices, accompanied with a marked transition towards a labor market of adaptable, skilled groups of entrepreneurial workers. It could be that developments in the use of ICT are aggravating the disparity in employability between the rich and poor technology savvies, also referred to as the ‘digital divide’ (Sims 2002). Current investigations highlight the relationships between social inequalities and ICT, their effect on recruitment practices, vocational training, professional competencies, wages, and others. As suggested by Milgrom and Roberts (1990), a business organization can be considered as a structure founded on agreements between each of its parties, comprising its workers. The interdependencies and ties that arise among those parties necessitate prompt information in order to sustain harmony. Furthermore, in competitive, demanding environments, there is an apparent need to initiat e changes in the firm toward more resilient practices, where regular job-training and specialization are means (Swart, Mann, Brown & Price 2005). In this situation, technological innovation simplifies the flow and organization of information, giving a needed assistance to the organization. The adjustment of the organizational recruitment practices is hence facilitated, allowing the formation of intricate organizations in the form of a system, in contrast to the former hierarchies founded on centralization, and reassigning an essential function to its workers through decentralization of the process of decision making (Swart et al. 2005). The arrival of innovative practices, and its relation to recruitment methods, has been broadly studied in the scholarly literature at the organizational level, leading to a number of studies of the notion referred to as ‘skill-biased technical change’ (SBTC) (Lawler, Mohrman, Mark & Neilson 2003). SBTC, more particularly, studies how the arrival of new technologies creates a prejudice towards more competent employees, and brings about a comparative boost in the demand for competent employees, because these competent employees are required in order to exploit the innovations appropriately (Lawler et al. 2003). A transformation in recruitment practices will be inclined in support of competent employees, or skill-inclined, if the new competencies are more expensive to obtain than those needed to work with old system, while

Organisation of the body Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Organisation of the body - Essay Example It has several functions, including; the control of DNA replication and gene expression, prevention of damage to DNA, enhancing mitosis by strengthening DNA, and packaging DNA strands to fit in nucleus (Lloyd & Beck, 2012: p27). This entails a network of membranes or tubes that connect the cellular membrane to the nuclear envelope. Involved in the metabolism of steroids and carbohydrates, synthesis of steroids and lipids, and receptor attachment on proteins of the cell membrane (Lloyd & Beck, 2012: p41). This is an endoplasmic reticulum studded on the outer surface with attached ribosomes, compared to SER that have none. These ribosomes manufacture proteins and deposit them in the lumen of the RER, after which they are transported as vesicles to the Golgi complex (Lloyd & Beck, 2012: p41). A stack of flattened compartments or sacs that receive proteins from the RER, which is crucial in the transport and modification of proteins. It is involved in the modification, packaging, and export of proteins to other cell organelles, such as the mitochondria, or for secretion by the cell (Lloyd & Beck, 2012: p43). They are tail-like projections found in prokaryotes and eukaryotes and protrude from their cell body. They are longer than cilia, but fewer in number, and their major function is locomotion through whip-like movements that propel the cell through liquid matter (Lloyd & Beck, 2012: p32). These are peanut-shaped organelles with double membranes, whereby the inner membrane is folded to form cristae. Aerobic cellular respiration occurs here, as well as the breakdown of sugar molecules for production of energy in the form of ATP (Lloyd & Beck, 2012: p19). This is a large, oval organelle, which has at least one nucleolus and contains DNA. It also holds the cell’s hereditary material. Its main function is to control the activities of the cell, particularly with regards to reproduction,

Emergence of Modern Political Ideologies Research Paper

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